GEOMORPHOLOGY
Notes & Labs
TOPICS
1. Introduction : Internal Forces & Climate, Altitudes, Specific Gravity &
Isostasy
2. Physiographic Provinces of Canada & Manitoba. Topographical Maps & Air
Photos. Surficial Maps of Manitoba
3. Karst Processes & landforms ………. mildly
acidic water
4. Glacial processes & landforms
………… beware: it is just water
expanding to ice
5. Periglacial processes & landforms
……… plenty of those in northern
Canada
6. Fluvial (river) processes & landforms …….water + sand digs
into rock like a saw
More recently, flooding & landslides make
this process more important
6. Wind processes & landforms ………… sandblasting
digs into soil/rock & can kill
7. Coastal processes & landforms ……….. moving
water can do lots of damage & it’s
salty!
LAB. : Altitudes, Specific Gravity, karst,
glacial, periglacial, river, desert, coastal, etc
(you
can’t take maps home, sign out stereoscope & return it at the end of
course)
FIELD TRIP: Rim of the St. Martin
(Gypsumville) meteorite crater on Hwy 6
EVALUATION:
Mid-Term = 30 %, Final = 30 %, Lab = 30 %, Project = 10 %
PROJECT:
Describe a karst /glacial/river/desert/coastal landscape from your area
or elsewhere and explain the process that created it. Pictures and / or
diagrams may be useful.
Guilin, China today: probably Ashern before the Ice Age
N O T E S
"WISE WORDS", continued
"WISE WORDS", continued
GM – 15: A river’s Drainage Basin is
outlined with contours from where you can see direction of flow. The Niagara Falls move slowly upstream
towards Lake Eire.
GM – 16: The recurrence interval of a flood is what you hear mentioned by
insurance companies & governments. However, it is quite meaningless.
Instead, governments should study other parameters of the drainage basin, such
as valley capacity, water table, etc to help dealing with the potential for
floods in the future.
GM – 17: Man. Hydro has numerous hydroelectric stations along rivers. The most
powerful are along the Nelson River, but the highest water drop is at Grand Rapids (hence the name)
GM – 18: East – West rivers in the prairies pass through the major cities
and are quite long. Therefore, flooding would depend on amount of precipitation,
amount of meltwater and whether soil is saturated or not (Assiniboine should be
Canada’s # 4 longest river)
GM – 19: A meandering river is the old stage of a river. Has low gradient (less than 2 %) and high deposition capacity. One
way to prevent floods along it is to remove the deposits (dredge them)
GM – 20: The St. Lawrence Seaway has 5 lakes at different elevations connected
with locks where the ships climb the mountain! The “superior” looks down on the rest!
GM – 21: The Assiniboine River Delta formed at the end of the
Ice Age and it compared with other major deltas from around the world today
(The Nile Delta is 2 - 3 times bigger and the Irrawaddy 4 -5 times bigger)
GM – 22: The Atlantic coast of the USA has
at least 5 submerged (drowned) river
systems plus its tributaries and numerous barrier islands
GM – 23: The ancient Assiniboine
River Delta is made up of sand deposits. At the end of the Ice Age there
were no trees yet, so the landscape resembled a desert and the wind which blew
in a similar direction as today, shaped up the sand into longitudinal dunes
GM – 24: The Death Valley has the lowest elevation in the USA. Due to the desert
environment water is contaminated with salt, gypsum, boron, and others
GM – 25:
GM - 26: Dust storm seen on satellite image leaving Morocco has reached
about 1/5
th of its travel to its hypothetical destination ( Winnipeg)
GM – 27: Australia’s “dryland salinity” extend over 8 – 12 % of the continent (year 2000) and are expected to increase
dramatically in the future. In the meantime, about 20-25 % of the continent is
desert. Therefore, the % of useful land becomes scarce with the passage of
time.
GM – 28: Examples of countries made up of atolls (low-level coral islands) going
under the sea are: North of the
Equator would be Marshall Islands, Micronesia & Kiribati, while South of the Equator we have Nauru (the
world’s happiest place in 2010!), Tuvalu, and Tonga
GM – 29: With a sea level rise of 5 m,
about 30 % of Florida would be
flooded by the sea, while a 10 m rise will cover 50 % of the state.
GM – 30: Every part of the ocean vibrates according to its own
resonance (frequency). This depends on position of the moon, sun and shape of
bay, depth of water, etc. So, by plotting a graph one realizes there are
variations in sea level rises and falls.
GM – 31: Rockies & thrust faults. In the sections provided we can count
some 35 thrust faults (west side
thrust upwards) in the southern Rockies and about 13 in the northern
Rockies
GM – 32: Movement of the ocean floor around the chain of
Hawaiian volcanoes. By plotting age of volcano against distance from the
presumed position of the hot spot we can estimate movement of the ocean floor
in the area ( about 10 -15 cm per year)
GM – 33: Maya settlements and karst: The Yucatan peninsula of Mexico has no
surface drainage (rivers) but lots of cenotes (sinkholes). About 30 – 50 % of
the known Maya settlements are in this area
GM – 6: Sea-bottom trenches. Deep trenches in the ocean correspond to volcanoes on
land at various distances from the shore. Examples are in the Aleutians,
Indonesia, Mexico & Central America, Caribbean & South America
NOTES
Delta
FIELD TRIP TO FISHER RIVER - fossil hunting
GRAND CANYON, ARIZ.
450 km long, up to 30 km wide, 2 km deep. River digging for 17 million years
450 km long, up to 30 km wide, 2 km deep. River digging for 17 million years
However, the deepest canyon is in Nepal
(Kali Gandaki) 2.5 km deep
RIVERS
•Water moves by
gravity
•Moving water is able
to move sediment
•Sand, gravel on
bottom, clay in suspension & salts in solution
STREAM EROSION &
DEPOSITION: main concept
•Rivers erode the
landscape by
•Downcutting: abrasive
action of sand/gravel
•Headward erosion:
causes the drainage network to migrate upwards
•Deposition of sediment
transported by rivers produces :
•Meanders & point
bars
•Natural levees
•Backswamps
•Stream terraces
•Deltas & alluvial
fans
SUPPORTING IDEAS
•A river flowing over
a low gradient deposits part of its load to form natural levees, point
bars and backswamps
•When a river enters a
lake or an ocean, it deposits most of its sediment load to form a delta
•When a river flows
into a dry basin, it deposits most of its sediment load to form an alluvial
fan
PROCESSES OF
STREAM EROSION
•Running water is by
far the most important agent of erosion on the planet today
•Most of the landscape
is sculpted in some way by streams and rivers
•As a result, stream
valleys are the most widespread landforms on the continents
•In the lower reaches
of a river, the major landforms are floodplain deposits, deltas, or alluvial
fans
DOWNCUTTING OF STREAM
CHANNELS
•One of basic
processes of erosion in all stream channels, whether small gullies or large
canyons
•Through abrasive
action of sand, cobbles & boulders moving along the channel floor
•The sediment load of
a river acts like a saw and is capable of cutting down the floor at an
astonishing rate.
•Upstream
migration of waterfalls & rapids (see Niagara Falls in lab)
NIAGARA FALLS
•Along Niagara River
•Had to dig channel to
cross Niagara Escarpment
•This channel is
additional to dramatic scenery of the Falls
GRADIENT
•New streams have high
gradient (steep)
•Old streams have low
gradient (meandering)
•To find the gradient
(meters per distance in km across a map)
•Contour lines form a
V-shape pointing upstream
•Count # of contour
lines crossing the river & multiply by contour interval
•Divide by distance
along the river
HEADWARD (UPSTREAM)
EROSION
•A universal tendency
to erode headward or upslope. Thus increase the length of the valley until they
reach the drainage divide. This process, is significant in the river’s upper
reaches
•The tributaries of
one stream can extend upslope & intersect the middle course of another
stream, thus diverting the headwater of one stream to another (Stream
Capture)
SLOPE RETREAT
•With both methods
above, the valley walls become subject to a variety of slope processes, such as
creep, debris flows & landslides
•Steep gradients
indicate downcutting is vigorous, ongoing process (new rivers)
•Gentle gradients with
meandering pattern suggests downcutting is minimal (old rivers)
deposition of sediment rather
than erosion
PROCESSES OF
STREAM DEPOSITION
•In the lower part of
a river system, the surface of the land slopes gently toward the sea and the
stream gradient is very low. As a result the river is unable to transport all
of its load and a significant amount of sediment may be deposited across
the floodplain.
•As point bars,
levees, backswamps
•That means the
valleys become higher
•Much of the sediment
is carried to the sea where it is deposited as a delta
MEANDERS AND POINT
BARS
•All rivers tend to
flow in a sinuous path
•Once a meander bend
is initiated the flow of water continues to impinge on the outside of the
channel and the bend grows larger. A small bend grows into a large meander
•On the inside,
velocity is at a minimum, so that some of the load is deposited
•As a meander bend
becomes accentuated, it develops an almost complete circle. Eventually,
a cutoff forms a short, but sharp, increase in stream gradient.
•As a result the river
abandons the old meander loop, which remains as a crescent shaped lake, oxbow
lake
NATURAL LEVEES
•If the river
overflows its banks during the flood stage, the water is no longer confined to
a channel, but flows over the land surface in a broad sheet.
•This will reduces the
velocity significantly and some of the suspended sediment settles out. Coarser
material builds an embankment known as a natural levee. It grows with time and
can be higher than the surrounding area
BACKSWAMPS
•Some of the
floodplain may be below river level. It is poorly drained and fine mud settles
there
STREAM TERRACES
•Rivers may fill part
of the valley with sediment, in other times erode through the filled in
sediment.
•Change from
deposition to erosion because of:
- change in volume of discharge
- change in gradient due to uplift
- change in amount of sediment load
DELTAS
(triangle-shaped)
•As a river enters the
sea or a lake, the velocity suddenly slows down and most of its load is
deposited
•Two major processes:
- the splitting into tributary channel
system
- development of local breaks in levees
through which sediment is diverted and deposited as splays in the area between
the distributaries
•A major phenomenon in
the construction of a delta is the shifting of the entire course of the river
•The growth of a delta
is influenced by waves and tides which can transport the sediment further out
to sea
•Growth of a delta
depends on the balance between the rate of sediment input by the river and the
rate of erosion by waves and tides
ALLUVIAL FANS
•Accumulates in a dry
basin at the foot of a mountain
Example: town of Las Vegas built
on one (that means it can flood, too)
THE RIVER CHANNEL
•Basic mechanics
•Gravity tends to
continuously accelerate the flow downstream
•The velocity
represents the balance between the energy causing flow & the energy
consumed by the resistance to flow
•Laminar flow: in
straight line
•Turbulent flow: in
all directions, eddies
•Highest velocity near
the center
•Decrease of velocity
towards the channel floor
•Flow & Resisting
factors
•Resistance from
waves, change in gradient, roughness of channel bed, pools, riffles, bars,
vegetation
SEDIMENT IN CHANNEL
•Most energy
dissipated by the resisting factors
•Remainder used to
erode & transport sediment
•Transportation: silt
& clay suspended load, sand as bedload
BANK EROSION
•Erosion is not just
directed vertically
•Bank erosion related
to both fluvial entrainment and the weakening & weathering of bank
materials
Erosion of bedrock
channels
•Abrasion with
sediment as grinding tool
•Plucking controlled
by joints, cracks in the rock
DEPOSITION
•Forms dunes, bars
& ripples
RIVER WORK
•The concept of
geomorphic work
•Estimated by amount
of sediment it transports
•90 % of sediment is
removed from the drainage basin by the sum of ordinary discharges that occur
once every 5 -10 years
•Mega-floods transport
high loads, but are rare
•River morphologies is
the product of high-frequency events: rare, high magnitude events can change
channel form
Quasi-equilibrium
condition
•Equilibrium between
discharge & load
•The influence of
slope
•Channel shape
•Channel patterns :
straight, meander, braided
SUMMARY
•Responds according to
driving & resisting forces. Parameters like velocity, width, slope, channel
pattern are adjusted so that the river can accomplish its work most efficiently
FLUVIAL LANDFORMS
•Activity within
the a stream related to energy
possessed by the river to carry water & sediment most efficiently
•Flood plain:
flat surface subject to periodic flooding (so, don’t built in it, or you get
flooded!)
ORIGIN OF FLOODPLAINS
•Maximum erosion on
the outer bank just downstream from the axis of curvature
•Bank erosions and
point bar accumulation are volumetrically equal
•Coarser sediment
deposited at point bars which spread laterally across the valley
•Floodplain acts like storage
area for sediment that cannot be transported
Fluvial terraces (The
city of Terrace, BC is built on river terraces)
•Abandoned floodplains
that were formed when the river flowed at a higher level than at present
DELTAS
•Depositional plain
formed by a river at its mouth
•River divides into
distributaries
•Deltas composed of
coarse-grain deposits
•Deposition results
when from reduction of river velocity as the flow enters a body of water
•All major marine
deltas are Holocene in age. Had their beginning between 8000 & 6500
years ago
•Most rivers develop
deltas. Balance between fluvial system, climate & shoreline dynamics
(currents & tides)
DELTA EVOLUTION
•Delta switching in
the Mississippi delta after dramatic shifts in the course of the river (river
breaches the levees)
•Nile Delta has NO
ROCK underneath, since the years when the river plunged 1.5 km into the empty
Mediterranean!!
•That would have been
a terrific sight
SUMMARY
•Landforms can be
erosional or depositional or both
•Floodplains by
overbank flooding
•Rivers move across
their valley floors
•Terraces are
abandoned floodplains
•Deltas
accumulate sediment when rivers enters a body of water. Forces from the river
& waves/tides in sea/lake
VIDEOS
•Tidal bore moves
upriver, Truro, Nova Scotia- 2-3 people watch it
•The Black Dragon,
China - thousands people are watching, some camping for 3 days
•The Severn bore, UK - a few people watch, some surf, some on boat & helicopter
•Pororoca, Brazil - can be violent with erosion on the river banks
Manitoba Rivers
Red River
•Comes from Minnesota,
Dakotas through Winnipeg (diverted around Floodway) into Lake Winnipeg
•Most frequently
flooded river in Canada
•Not extremely long, but
flows “the wrong way”, from south to north
Lake Winnipeg to
Hudson Bay
•Regulated along
“Nelson River”
•Part of Churchill
river diverted into the Nelson
•Numerous dams &
reservoir lakes
•Lake Winnipeg used as
a “reservoir lake” for generating electricity
Assiniboine River
•Flows west to east,
but very long with its tributaries
•Length of
Assiniboine: about 660 (1050) km
•Two main tributaries:
Qu’ Appelle & Souris total about 1,000 km
•Numerous smaller
tributaries
•Total 2,300 km (
should be 4th longest in Canada)
•Drainage Basin of
300,000 sq km (9th biggest in Canada)
Saskatchewan River
•Flows into the Grand
Rapids dam
•Upstream through The
Pas it splits after 360 km
•North Saskatchewan
River flows from the Rockies via Edmonton
•South Saskatchewan
flows from the Rockies via Calgary & Saskatoon (Medicine Hat)
•Considered part of
the “Nelson River” (officially 4th longest in Canada)
WIND
•Effective geomorphic
agent where sparse vegetation and unconsolidated sediment
•More than 1/3 of
land is arid or semi-arid
•1 billion people live
there
•Desertification is a
problem today
summary
•Aeolian processes:
important in deserts
•Wind erosion
(abrasion, deflation, blowout, yardang)
•Transport
(creep, saltation, suspension, dust storms, loess)
•Deposition (sand
sheets, ripples, dunes)
The resisting
environment
•Only 1/4 to 1/5
occupied by sand
•Evaporation
exceeds precipitation
•Sparse vegetation may
be present due to soil moisture
•“Desert varnish”
•“Desert pavement” is
thin & protects silt, clay & sand underneath
•Human activities
result in dessication of lakes and formation of playas
The driving force
•Wind related
to global circulation patterns
•Temperature gradients
can change wind direction (hot during the day starts a wind towards, cold
at night brings wind away)
•Wind direction
important as to what material will move
•Wind velocity
increases with height because no friction
•Most winds are
characterized by the irregular motions associated with turbulent flow. As in
rivers, the transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at some critical
number above which winds are able to accomplish geomorphic work (bring down a
tree, for example)
Entrainment &
transportation
•Most desert sands
have a threshold velocity of about 16 km/hour (velocity at which motion
begins)
•When the upward
velocity exceeds the terminal velocity, turbulent eddies are able to lift
particles to high elevations up to km
•This type of
transport, suspension, usually involves only clay & silt
•Saltation:
spasmodic bouncing motion of fine to medium sand
•Surface creep of
coarser sand
•Impact threshold:
grains may move even below threshold values. Critical size is 0.84 mm. but in
exceptions larger sizes can move
•The saltation effect:
grains skip
•Most sand moves by
saltation, less than 1/4 by creep
Erosional features
•Abrasion and
deflation
•Abrasion: sand
particles act as grinding tools - sandblasting
•Ventifacts:
eroded stones. Formation of facets, pits, grooves & flutes
•Maximum abrasion
occurs 10 - 15 cm above ground surface
•Yardangs:
wind-shaped rock outcrops, blunt up-wind, pointed leeward end
•Found on all deserts
except Australia
•The Sphinx may
be a carved out yardang
•Deflation: the
lifting & transportation of loose sand and dust
•mechanism for
creating depressions up to 20 m deep, sometimes with lakes called pans
Transport
•Creep :responsible
for 1/4 of sand moving. Grains pushed by saltating grains
•Saltation: series of
jumps & skips, a few cm above ground
•Suspension: silt
& clay may climb many km in duststorms (turbulent flow)
•Loess
deposits: from duststorms
•Thickest : 335 m in
China, 20-30 m in America, Europe
Deposits and features
•Sand sheets
without dunes
•Ripples : may
be spaced up to 20 m apart. Crests & troughs. Long axes at 90 ‘ to wind.
Coarser material at crests
•Ripples are tiny(up
to 5 cm high) in relation to the Dunes (height from 0.1 to 100 m)
DUNES
•Sand sea, ergs with
dunes
•The largest sand sea
in the west: Sand Hills, Nebraska, 57,000 km2
•Athabasca Sands:
most northerly in the world
•Height from less than
3 m to 100 m
•Pronounced regularity
in dune spacing
•Backslope,upwind
(10-15’), crest, slip face, downwind (30-35’)
•Has a smooth slope
& steep slope
•Dunes retain their
original form as they advance
•Many dune types may
be present in the same area
•Variables are wind
direction, topography, size & abundance of sand
Types of dunes
•Most common on earth
(& Mars) is crescentic, or or barchan
•Wider than long
•Wind blows in one
direction
•Move faster than any
other type
•More than 100 m per
year
•Largest have
crest-to-crest widhts of more than 3 km
Transverse
•Large supply of sand
•Constant wind
direction
•May form sand seas
•Like barchan, but
continuous curves
Straight, linear,
longitudinal, seif (sword)
•Much longer than they
are wide
•More than 300 km long
•Up to 300 m high
•Form sets of parallel
ridges
•Long axes parallel to
wind direction
•May have ripples on
the sides
Star
•Radially
•Pyramidal mounds
•3 or more arms
•3 or more
directions of wind
•Grow upward rather
than laterally
•Up to 500 m high in
China
Parabolic
•In coastal areas
•Similar to barchan,
but tips point upwind
“Singing sands”
•Movement of sand grains
or wind blowing over sand can create sounds
•Whistling, roaring,
booming, barking
•Most common frequency
is 450 Hz
•The Singing Sands are
in Georgian Bay & PEI (if you hear nothing, ask for money back?)
LOESS
•Silt and clay deposits
•Unstratified up to
100 m thick
•Highly porous
•Capacity to maintain
vertical slopes
•Occupies up to 10
% of all land
•50 % made up of silt,
rest is clay, quartz
•More than 500 million
tons of dust transported each year on earth
•Africa &
Australia have no loess
•Outwash is a logical
source for many loess deposits
•The thickest loess in
N.America (70 m ) occurs immediately down-wind from the Sand Hills, Nebraska
Summary
•Wind is a geomorphic
agent where there is sparse vegetation
•Amount of work
depends on velocity and turbulence
•Motion is possible
after the critical velocity is reached (friction threshold)
•Motion by suspension,
saltation, surface creep (most load within 2 m of the surface)
•Abrasive action of
windblown sand
•Depositional features
are ripples,dunes
•Most windblown silt
& clay deposited in sheets of loess that tend to smooth out topography
Videos
•Sandstorm in Phoenix,
Arizona -haboob
•Sandstorm, Arizona in
time-lapse (besides dust, other cloud develops higher)
•A “haboob wedding”,
Arizona
•Sandstorm, Arizona
with a UFO studying it
•Driving in a
sandstorm, Kuwait (too dangerous to drive)
•Sydney sandstorm,
Australia (red dust from Australian soil))
•Xinjiang, NW China
•Sandstorms cover
Northern China (yellow dust or loess, "yellow people")
•Saudi Arabia, turning
day into night
•Phoenix "monsoon" 2012 (shows strong wind)
COASTAL: Main concept
•The configuration of
a shoreline changes as a result of erosion and deposition until
it reaches a state of equilibrium
Supporting ideas
•Wave refraction is a
fundamental process by which energy is concentrated on headlands and dispersed
across bays
•Longshore drift is
one of the most important processes of sediment transport along a coast
•Erosion along a coast
tends to develop sea cliffs by the undercutting action of waves and longshore
currents. As a cliff recedes, a wave-cut platform develops
•The worldwide rise
in sea level, associated with the melting of glaciers drowned many coasts
•The configuration of
our present-day coasts may therefore be due to a variety of geologic processes
that operated on the land before sea level rose and NOT to the marine processes
operating today
COASTAL processes
•EROSION ALONG COASTS:
•Wave refraction:
waves bend, concentrate energy on headlands & disperses energy in bays
•Longshore drift:
sediment moves along the beach. Landforms are wave-cut cliffs, sea stacks, sea
arches and sea caves. As a sea cliff recedes, a wave-cut platform develops
DEPOSITION ALONG
COASTS
•Sediment derived from
erosion on land is deposited in deltas (sand)
see.. Assiniboine
Delta
•Moved by longshore
current and deposited as spits, barrier island, lagoon, tidal inlet, tidal
delta
EVOLUTION OF SHORELINES
•As a result of
erosion & deposition a coast evolves until energy is distributed evenly so
that neither large-scale erosion or deposition takes place:
•Shoreline of
equilibrium
•Smooth, gently
curving beach
•Now, sea level rises
again!
Classification of
coasts
•Primary coasts,
formed by terrestrial processes
•Secondary coasts,
formed by marine processes
Primary coasts: are
configured by terrestrial processes
•Stream erosion: area
not covered by sea
Subsequent sea rise drowned the
river valleys
•glacial erosion: sea
drowns U-shaped glacial valleys like fjords.
•These are not greatly
modified by wave action
•stream deposition:
where a major river enters the sea, it deposits more sediment that waves and
currents can carry away.
•So new coastal
land is added in the form of a delta
Secondary coasts: are
configured by marine processes
•Wave erosion: wave
erosion forms straight sea cliffs.
•If different
formations are present, wave erosion produces bays in the softer material
•This leaves the
resistant rock projecting into the sea as rocky points
•Marine deposition:
coasts build by sediment deposited by waves and currents are readily
recognizable by beaches, barrier islands, spits and bars
•Organically built
coasts: growth of organisms such as coral reefs and mangrove trees
Videos
•Time lapse, tides in
Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia
MISCELLANEOUS : other landforms
Rockies & Thrust faults
collision of continents
•Created tremendous
pressure from the west
•The rocks near the
surface were broken along roughly vertical faults and blocks kept moving
eastwards, piggyback over other, older blocks of rock
•This process went on
for millions of years and resulted in the scenery we have today:
•“Mountain peaks
thrusting themselves towards the sky” – see pictures
Thrust fault:
separates rocks of different color
Layers in the rock
point to the sky
Hawaii: volcanic
islands in the middle of the ocean
•Lava started
accumulating on the ocean floor
•Must be a tremendous
pile to reach the surface of the deep ocean!
The “Big Island”
•Highest peak: 4,200 m
Mauna Kea with 13 telescopes from 11 countries, not active
tallest sea mountain
•Mauna Loa : slightly
lower (4,140 m) with Observatories for CO2 gas (just passed the 400 ppm level –
a milestone)
largest volcano on earth, 9,170 m
above sea floor (depresses crust 8 km due to its weight)
Both peaks
•Above clouds
•Clear air
•Less light pollution
•Less air pollution
•Stars shine more
bright
•Polar climate, no trees
Mauna Kea
•Observatories
•Video: Mauna Kea
Observatories
•Video: Mauna Kea
Observatory by Hector (almost a "polar scenery")
Mauna Loa
•Atmospheric studies
•Video: Mauna Loa
Observatory studying air composition, uv, solar radiation, CO2
Active volcanoes
•Kilauea
•Loihi seamount (below
sea level)
PRESENTATIONS - SUBMITTED PROJECTS
1.
A buffalo wallow in the Interlake, is actually a sinkhole
2.
The famous Hopewell Rocks shaped by the tides and wave action.
3.
Karst topography at its best in
Steep Rock, Manitoba
4.
A deposit of sand below vegetation cover and next
to glacial till is strange. Sand must have been deposited by water in a river
cutting a channel through till.
5.
Devil’s Hole east of Spearhill must be a
sinkhole, actually a series of 3 holes.
6.
St. Martin’s crater has dramatically
affected the landscape around Gypsumville. Local legends have tried to explain
the strange landforms in the area, probably because they suspected strange natural
phenomena had taken place – examples are The Big Bend in
Dauphin River and the Big Rock
outcrop east of Gypsumville (granite and gneiss)
7.
Very prominent landforms are
found in the Rockies whose history
spans millions of years of natural forces in action.
FIELD TRIP TO FISHER RIVER - fossil hunting
